Localization refers to a process by which a location is determined of people, places, and objects of interest is determined. Outdoor localization, for example, through global positioning systems (GPS) is prevalent. However, indoor localization is not common, partly due to the attenuation of GPS signal by construction material of a building due to which the a location determination system loses power and due to the spatial granularity requirements that place a burden on the location determination system to achieve fairly high location accuracy. For example, while a three meter location error outdoors may still indicate the same street, a three meter location error in an indoor environment may mean an entirely different room in a building, which would render the location based services (LBS) application requiring high-level accuracy inoperable.
Further, conventional location determination systems include sensors, beacons, and transponders for the indoor localization of object devices. However, these systems require the installation of a plurality of electronic devices or indoor base stations in order to work and require complicate additional hardware in the object devices.